ABSTRACT ................................................................................................1

OVERVIEW OF PAPERS PURPOSE .......................................................2

STUDY AREA .............................................................................................2

MARGINAL ELEMENTS OF THE LOPPA HIGH...................................3

Bjornoyenna Fault Complex ........................................................................3

Polhem Subplatform ....................................................................................4

Asterias Fault Complex.................................................................................4

Eastern Flexure.............................................................................................4

INTERNAL ELEMENTS OF THE LOPPA HIGH ...................................5

Loppa High Graben.....................................................................................5

Swaen Graben .............................................................................................5

REGIONAL STRUCTURE .......................................................................6

Overview of Historical Development ..........................................................6

Basement Geology and Structure............................................................... 6

Cover Geology and Structure......................................................................7

REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHY ................................................................7

METHODOLOGY....................................................................................9

DESCRIPTION ......................................................................................10

Map View ................................................................................................10

Cross-section ...........................................................................................10

Transects ..................................................................................................12

DISCUSSION - Swaen Graben ..............................................................12

Thin-skinned ............................................................................................12

Thick-skinned ..........................................................................................14

Occurrence of Swaen Graben in Reference to Surrounding Structures ....14

Future Studies for Further Reasoning on History of Area .......................16

CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................16

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................18

FIGURES ................................................................................................19

REFERENCES.........................................................................................29

FIGURE PAGE#

1 -- Regional Geologic Map ...............................................19

2 -- Seismic Section - Line 9Q6-4026A .............................20

3a -- Seismic Section - Line NH8707-401A ......................21

3b -- Seismic Section - Line NH8707-401A ......................22

4 -- Seismic Section - Line 9Q6-4024A .............................23

5 -- Jurassic Sequence Boundary Surface Contour ............24

6 -- Jurassic Sequence Boundary Transect ........................25

7 -- Top of Asselian Reflector Surface Contour ................26

8 -- Top of Asselian Reflector Transect............................. 27

9 -- Schematic of the Evolution of the Swaen Graben in ...28

Relation to Surrounding Structures

Abstract

This thesis addresses the history and structural evolution of the Swaen Graben. The Swaen Graben originated in the Early to Mid-Jurassic. The master faults associated with the Graben appear to terminate and intersect in pre-Asselian strata, in an evaporite package. The Jurassic Sequence Boundary shows the most offset of the Graben. Deposited on this layer is a thick package of Cretaceous fill. Individual units of fill pinch out suggesting syn-tectonic deposition.

The master faults of the Swaen Graben may be thin-skinned or thick-skinned. Seismic evidence supports the thin-skinned hypothesis. There is no evidence of offset below the intersecting master faults. The thin-skinned hypothesis helps explain the Swaen Grabenís relationships with other surrounding structures such as the Loppa High graben. A "flake-like" detachment on the southeast portion of the Loppa High may exist with the Swaen Graben as the North edge of the flake.

The actually formation of the Swaen Graben encompasses the formation of other surrounding structures, such as the Asterias Fault Complex, the Eastern Flexure and the Loppa High graben. These features were all formed during the Early to Mid-Jurassic. One hypothesis is that they formed as extensional features over a time frame where the direction of extension slowly rotated counter-clockwise. This hypothesis explains the central bend in the Graben associated with the connection between the Asterias Fault Complex and the Eastern Flexure. This also suggests that there is a strike-slip component associated with the Loppa High graben, and possibly even the Swaen Graben itself.

Overview of Paper's Purpose

The study area is located on the Barent Shelf, to the North of Norway (Figure 1). This report focuses on the Swaen Graben. The Swaen Graben is located on the Loppa High, on which, historically, there have been limited geologic studies done. Most of the studies are relatively recent and are being financed and initiated by oil companies, due to the potential of oil collection in this area. The seismic data for this study was provided through a grant received from the Saga Petroleum Company of Norway. The purpose of this grant was to understand the structural history of the area, and create a computer animation showing fault occurrence activity proportional to slip rates. This report will discuss the geometry and formation of the Swaen Graben and its interrelationship with the surrounding geologic structures, including regional and local fault activity and nearby salt domes. This could also give us a better understanding of the hydrocarbon formation and migration history. The history of the structural formation of the Swaen Graben could explain why the Graben is anomalous, having an E-W trend in a dominant NE-SW trending region.

LOPPA HIGH

Study Area

The focus of the study is on the Loppa High geographic area (Figure 1), which is very structurally complex. It is surrounded by geologic basins to the West, South and East, and two predominant salt domes to the North and northeast (Figure 1). The Loppa High is one of several highs located on the Barent Shelf. North of the Loppa High are the Stappen High, on which Bjornoya is located, and the Mercurius High, is further East. Deep-seated block faulting helped create the Loppa Highís diamond-shaped outline. Gabrielson (1984) classifies these deep-seated faults as first class faults responsible for structures on a regional setting. These first class faults are responsible for forming surrounding highs and basins such as the Loppa High and the Hammerfest Basin. Second class faults also penetrate the basement rock and are responsible for structures at a semi-regional setting. Third class faults are small scale faults that are generally located within the highs and basins, affecting them on a minor scale. Bordering the Loppa High to its west is the Bjornoyrenna and Ringvassoy-Loppa Fault Complexes (Gabrielsen, 1990). To the east and northeast are smaller salt domes which possibly had an effect on second and third order faults on the Loppa High which will be discussed later (Figure 1). The Samson Dome is located at ~24° 23E and ~72° 15N. The Norvarg Dome is located at the eastern terminus of the Swaen Graben at ~25° 53E and ~72° 53N. The Svalis Dome occurs at the terminus of multiple faults, including the northeastern end of the Hoop Fault Complex.

Marginal Elements of the Loppa High

Bjrnoyenna Fault Complex

The Bjornoyenna Fault Complex (Figure 1) trends in a SW-NE direction, creating the western boundary of the Loppa High. This complex is a combination of first and second class faults, composed primarily of normal faults, with some reverse faults. The faultsí primary activity occurred in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, during a time of regional spreading (Gabrielson, 1990). There was also some fault activity during the early Carboniferous. This area was reactivated in the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary times in reverse mode (Gabrielson, 1990).

Polhem Subplatform

The Polhem Subplatform is located between the Loppa High and the Bjornoyrenna Fault Complex (Figure 1). The faults creating the Subplatform consist primarily of class one and two faults, which were active during many phases. Gabrielson (1984) indicated they began in the Early Permian and many of the listric faults began in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous and were later reactivated (Maher, 1999). The Polhem Subplatform originated as part of the Loppa High, later downfaulting relative to the crest of the present Loppa High. The characteristic listric faults slid towards the west during the Mid-Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.

Asterias Fault Complex

The Asterias Fault Complex has an East-West trend, and is a zone of normal faulting. This fault complex runs parallel along a monocline at the southern end of the Loppa High, separating the Hammerfest basin and the Loppa High. The fault complex dies out into the Eastern Flexure as it begins to trend in a north-northeast direction. To the west of 21° 15E, there appears to be evidence of half-flower structures and local doming (Gabrielson, 1990). The northeastern-most section of the Asterias Fault Complex is represented by a flexure, which is believed to be due to deep extensional faulting. The Asterias Fault Complex is anomalous relative to surrounding Cretaceous aged faults because it trends in an E-W direction rather NE-NW than.

Eastern Flexure

The Eastern Flexure forms the eastern boundary of the Loppa High. It is a monoclinal feature created by uplift, or normal faulting at depth, in either instance, basement rock is involved. The flexure runs in a near north-south direction. The Eastern flexure cross-cuts the Swaen Graben at almost a 90° angle. The flexure was primarily developed during the Lower Cretaceous, evident by onlap surfaces seen in seismic section. Further development of the Eastern Flexure is also evident through the Tertiary, due to tilting of these strata (Maher, 1999).

Internal Elements of the Loppa High

Loppa High Graben

The Loppa High Graben is shallower than the Swaen Graben, having no preserved sediment fill. This lack of fill may be due to the higher position it occupied on the Loppa High. It trends in a N-S direction, highly oblique to the Swaen Graben and is subparallel to the Eastern Flexure. The Loppa High Graben appears as though it may connect to the Swaen Graben through a transition zone at the western terminus of the Swaen Graben (Figure 1).

Swaen Graben

The Swaen Graben is made of two opposing normal faults trending in an overall E-W direction. It spans the northeast corner of the Loppa High and continues on through the Eastern Flexure and towards the Norvarg Dome (Figure 1). The Graben is very narrow relative to its length. There is about a 20 ° bend at the center of the Graben. The West end of the Graben has a step to the North and there are multiple minor steps to the South. The fill of the Graben is Jurassic and Cretaceous in age.

Regional Structure

Overview of Historical Development

The regional structural geology of the Barents Sea has been affected by many tectonic phases. During the Late Paleozoic through Mesozoic it was located within an intracratonic setting. (Gabrielson 1990) There have been up to four major geologic events since the Devonian time period. The majority of uplift and tilting of the Loppa High occurred during the Carboniferous, helping create the Polhem platform and created the initial Loppa High. Later uplift occurred during the Mid- to Late-Jurassic, furthering the slope of the Loppa High in an East-West direction (Breivig, 1988). This was a time of multiple, complex structural events in the area. Some of the activity causing the uplift involved basement rock also. Normal block faulting, in addition to creating flexures and monoclines, all influenced the formation of the Swaen Graben as will be discussed later.

Basement Geology and Structure

Very little is known about the structure of the Barents Sea during the pre-Carboniferous. Nearby, Bjornoya and Svalbard show evidence of Pre-Carboniferous faulting in basement outcrops (Harland, 1997). These basement strata have the same magnetic and gravity anomaly patterns the basement strata of the Loppa High, suggesting Calideride structures are present . There is evidence of later reactivation of Bjornoya and Svalbardís basement faults during Carboniferous and Tertiary times (Harland, 1997). It is believed that there has been preservation of fault zones and structures at the basement level of the Loppa High region (Gabrielsen, 1984). These fractures may have influenced the structural development of the Barents Sea from the Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic times.

Cover Geology and Structure

Observable fault trends are ENE-WSW to NE-SW and NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE trends, with a local strike of WNW-ESE (Figure 1). The West sector of the Barents Sea has been the most tectonically active from Mesozoic to Cenozoic times, whereas the sectors to the east and northeast have been relatively quiet. The Triassic to Early Jurassic was a relatively quiet period for the region, having no major activity. Subsidence occurred during the Late Triassic. Also during the Triassic period, salt tectonics affected the regional depositional patterns of the area (Gabrielson, 1990).

During the Mid-Jurassic, block faulting occurred once again and increased through the Early Cretaceous (Grevik, 1998). During this time frame, a large amount of erosion took place, leaving little Cretaceous and Jurassic sediments preserved on the Loppa High, thus creating a very well defined Jurassic Sequence Boundary in adjacent basins. During the Late Cretaceous, "reverse faulting and folding, combined with extensional faulting in some areas, became still more common, even though extension may have prevailed on the regional scale" (Gabrielson, 1990). During the Eocene and Oligocene periods, an event of peak folding and inversion occurred locally. Many of the deep-seated fault zones in the Barents Sea were created during the Carboniferous or pre-Carboniferous. Due to the multiple events of early block faulting activity, much of the later structural events are believed to be reactivation of those early structures.

Regional Stratigraphy

There has been little stratigraphic work published about the off-shore Barent Shelf region. Continuous stratigraphy can be used to trace seismic reflectors from Bjornoya and Svalbard's cover strata and correlate them with the strata of the study area. Using these seismic correlations and the outcrops present on Svalbard and Bjornoya, a common stratigraphic framework can be developed. Several drill holes allow precise identification at reflectors and better regional correlation. There is a crystalline basement rock overlain by cover material. The Carboniferous cover material is composed of carbonates interlayered initially with clastics and then evaporites. Evaporites are very good reflectors, for example the Asselian reflector near the base of the Swaen Graben (Figures 2, 3 & 4). The Permian is composed of cherty/spiculitic mudstone deposited in the basins and limestones and shales deposited in platform settings. The Top Permian reflectors are the next good package of two dominant reflectors above the Asselian reflectors (Figures 2, 3 & 4). Within the Hammerfest Basin there are Induan to Anisian shales and claystones. These grade upward into Ladinian and Carnian compositionally immature sandstones (Mork, 1999). Overlying the Top Permian spiculitic cherts and shales, the Triassic package is composed of clastics and deltaics where clinothems are easily observable in some seismic sections. The sediment deposited from the late Middle Triassic to Middle Jurassic age is composed of sandstones and mudstones. Sandstones also make good reflectors. The Jurassic sequence boundary is a very strong reflector that occurs below the Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary. Deposited during the latest Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous are organic-rich shales and minor sandstone successions. During the Late Cretaceous deposits include a basinal shale interlayered with Aptian erosional sand bodies, and condensed calcareous sandstones in platform settings (Mork, 1999).

The seismic data had very good reflectors at the Jurassic Sequence Boundary and at the Asselian. The Asselian reflector is just probably composed of some sort of evaporites interlayerd with carbonates. The Jurassic Sequence Boundary is probably composed of sandstone or mudstone. This is a good reflector because there is a significant change at this boundary in rock type from the sandstone/mudstone to organic rich shales, which create poor reflectors.

Methodology

My primary research was based on seismic data provided by the Saga Petroleum Company. Interpreting eight sections, such as figures 2, 3 and 4, I defined; major faults (faults creating local and regional structures), minor faults (faults whose off-set was minimal), and collected two-way travel times (twtt). Major and minor faults were determined on the basis of the amount of offset visible for well-defined reflectors. Major faults have twtt's greater than 200s and minor faults have twtt's less than 200s. A typical major fault's twtt for the Swaen Graben does not exceed 400s. The average travel velocity of the sound waves is 3.5 km/s, making the largest off-set 700km.

I measured twtt's to the Jurassic sequence boundary and the Asselian surface on eight seismic sections. The Jurassic sequence boundary was chosen because at this level, there is a very well defined reflector that shows the sedimentological base of the Graben. The Asselian surface was chosen because it is the deepest level where one can see good reflectors at the base and just below the Swaen Graben. This surface is within a package of evaporites making it suitable for possible detachment.

The shot points were entered into an Excel database and converted into UTM coordinates. Using these UTM coordinates and twtt's as x, y, z positions, I created three dimensional computer models and two-dimensional topographic maps using Surface-3, a contouring and mapping program. These models were used to infer a chronology of structural geologic occurrences surrounding the Swaen Graben on both regional and local scales.

Description of Swaen Graben

Map View

The Swaen Graben is an estimated 100 km long and at the Jurassic level it is 4 - 5 km wide. What makes the Swaen Graben so unique is the fact that it is so narrow, yet it is about twenty times larger in length. There is a change in strike from WNW to ENE slightly east of where the Eastern Flexure crosses the Swaen Graben (Figure 1). To the west, the Graben terminates at a small normal fault complex that has a strike-slip component (Figure 1). This small complex is the Loppa High Graben trending from NNE-SSW through the central portion of the Loppa High, between 72° and 73° N (Gabrielson, 1990). The eastern end of the Swaen Graben terminates at the Norvarg Dome, where this segment of the Graben is constituted by many ENE-WSW and E-W trending faults (Gabrielson, 1990). In the western section of the Graben there is an area of offset towards the north (Figures 5 & 6). This transition zone continues the Graben, having the same trend and amount of spreading, but it also has far less fill than the primary section of the Swaen Graben. Unlike the primary section of the Graben, the sediment deposited was not preserved.

Cross-section

Most activity of the Swaen Graben occurred during the Mid- to Late-Jurassic Period. Its master faults extend from the Pre-Asselian to the base of the Quaternary (Gabrielson, 1990). The thickest fill in the Graben is Cretaceous in age. It is evident that there were multiple movement episodes during that time period. This is observable in Cretaceous fill that pinch out towards the South side of the Graben (Figures 3 & 5). These are strong reflectors above the Jurassic Sequence Boundary. They were likely created by erosional deposition from outside the Graben, during multiple master fault movements of the Graben. These pinched deposits suggest normal fault movement on the North side of the Graben, causing a fill unit to be uneven in thickness. The Graben appears to be relatively uniform in elevation from one side to the other. There are areas that are not completely symmetric, but that is associated with the occurrence of a minor anticline that parallels the Swaen Graben to the South, making the southern edge lower in elevation (Figure 3). There is definite hanging wall deformation apparent in Figure 3 on the southern primary fault. At depth, the Graben is evident until it enters the Asselian evaporite layer. Evaporites make for very strong reflectors, but at that depth noise is more common due to overlying faults disrupting the seismic waves.

There are also minor associated faults apparent at depth on the outskirts of the primary Swaen Graben faults and within the Graben's fill. In addition to normal faults, there also appears to be possible minor thrust faulting at depth, within or just above the evaporite layers (Figure 2). There appears to be a transition zone that is evident on the western end of the Swaen Graben in cross-section and on transect diagrams. After this step to the North, as viewed in the model, the Jurassic sequence boundary of the Graben has been affected by erosion, and does not have a thick sedimentary package below it (Figure 3). This is because there is less sedimentary fill in this secondary section of the Graben than in the primary section of the Graben. There are two possible reasons for this. One, if the extension is spread out over a larger area, there is less throw having less room for sedimentary fill. The second possibility is if the Loppa High sloped towards the East, then this section of the Graben was higher and the sedimentary fill eroded off this platform area into the low of the Graben.

Transects

The transect of the Jurassic Sequence Boundary (Figure 6) shows the Eastern Flexure crossing the Swaen Graben. You can see at the Jurassic Sequence boundary level there is a large drop as the Eastern Flexure cross cuts the Graben (Figure 6). It is also evident that the uplift of the Eastern Flexure is visible at the level of Asselian reflector within the Graben. Though exaggerated, you are able to see how narrow the Graben is relative to the section that is modeled (Figure 6). You can also see an evidence of an anticline trending in a WNW direction parallel with the Swaen Graben (Figure 5). In addition, the secondary section of the Graben is visibly offset from the primary section of the Graben in the northwest section of the Jurassic Sequence Boundary transect. At depth, at the Asselian boundary, the Eastern Flexure is still visible, but the Swaen Graben is only faintly visible just west of the Eastern Flexure. In Figure 5 you can see a small depression where the Swaen Graben descends on the East side of the flexure.

Discussion - Swaen Graben

Thin-skinned

It is possible that thin-skinned faulting created the Swaen Graben. An argument for this can be made using X and V geometries. X, V geometries were introduced by Scholz and Contreras (1998) to describe deep-seated rifts that detach in the ductile-brittle transition zone in the basement rock. This geometry could also be used to describe the second class faults of the Swaen Graben, in particular, the V-geometry. V-geometry faults are typically symmetrical and intersect at the base of a detachment layer at depth. In the case of the Swaen Graben, the faults intersect at an argumentatively base detachment layer of evaporites, whereby making the V geometry pertinent. This can be tested in seismic section by looking below the point at which the secondary faults intersect to form the Swaen Graben (Figures 2 & 3). Some sections, such as Figure 4, show a continuation of off-set below the V-geometry, but typically the off-set does not appear to be present below the V-geometry. Where the off-set is present, the throw is less than that of the master fault of which it may stems from

These thin-skinned faults create, what appears to be, a flake-like structure. It begins with a level of detachment composed primarily of evaporites. Evaporites are ductile in nature, making for a good level of detachment. This flake structure includes the section of the Loppa High that lies between the Loppa High Graben, Swaen Graben, Eastern Flexure and the Asterias Fault Complex (Figure 9). Assuming this area is thin-skinned, having a common detachment level, this section of the Loppa High has "flaked off" or pulled away from the rest of the High. If it has pulled away, the level of faulting must be relatively shallow and the spreading relatively slow due to the presence of only narrow grabens, such as the Swaen Graben or the Loppa High graben.

One explanation for this large section's movement could be gravity causing it to move. This does not seem to be the case because there would be some sort of compressional toe formed at the base of the Asterias Fault Complex or at the base of the Eastern Flexure and there is no evidence of this in either area (Maher, 1999). The other explanation is, the extension is related to flexure slip and layer extension associated with the formation of the Loppa High marginal structures, especially the Asterias Fault Complex (Maher, 1999).

Thick-skinned

Two thick-skinned hypotheses can also be entertained for the Swaen Graben. The first hypothesis consists of a purely extensional feature, composed of deep-seated normal faults. This would be viable, except for the seismic sections' argument against this hypothesis. The seismic sections model sub-horizontal reflectors at depth, without throw, in the area where a normal fault should be passing through (Figures 2, 3, and 4). If the Graben was a purely extensional thick-skinned fault, these reflectors should be off set and they are not.

The second possible thick-skinned hypothesis would consist of the Swaen Graben being a negative flower structure. This would require there to be a deep-seated strike-slip fault where transtension and transpression occur, locally forming a bend at shallow levels in the strata. Traditionally, negative flower structures are formed in these bends as transtensional features creating an en echelon pattern in a continuous direction (Keary, 1993). In the case of this study, there are visible side steps parallel to the Swaen Graben to the North and to the South. With such an inconsistent en echelon pattern, the question is how the Swaen Graben in not a negative flower structure. Extension characterize the length of the Swaen Graben, extensional components are typically regional and not local. An extensional component and offset at depth would have to occur at depth, and offset at depth can be ruled out by seismic data.

Occurrence of Swaen Graben in reference to Surrounding Structures

The Asterias Fault Complex monocline and Eastern Flexure, I believe have much to do with the change in trend of the Swaen Graben and the termination at its western end by the small fault complex. The Eastern Flexure appears to be a continuation of the southern monocline created by the Asterias Fault Complex. Follow the monocline East and it begins to trend in a WNW direction and eventually to a NNW direction forming the Eastern Flexure. The Asterias Fault Complex monocline was active during the same period as the Swaen Graben. This can be seen in Figure 4, where there is a Cretaceous onlap surface overlying the Jurassic Sequence Boundary. The western segment of the Swaen Graben, runs parallel with this monocline. Assuming that the formation of the monocline came first, there would be spreading in N-S directions, forming the western segment of the Swaen Graben. Then as the monocline begins to trend in a WNW direction, spreading changes direction, whereby causing the bend in the Swaen Graben. Eventually, what is the Eastern Flexure, propagates from the SW to the NE. This evolution is depicted in figure 9.

At this same time, the termination of the Swaen Grabenís western end becomes broken up and spread out where a transition zone forms (Figure 3b). As the spreading rotates in a counter-clockwise direction the Loppa High graben begins to form, causing there to be a strike-slip component and a normal fault component in what is the Loppa High graben. As discussed earlier, this graben has thin-skinned characteristics, this does not rule out the possibility of a concurrent strike-slip component. This eventually leads to two fault zones, the Swaen Graben and the Loppa High graben, having nearly perpendicular trends.

Apparent in seismic section and transect (Figures 4 & 6), is a subtle, large anticline. This feature was probably produced during the Early to Mid-Jurassic, during the formation of the Swaen Graben and the Asterias Fault Complex. The thin-skinned hypothesis for the Swaen Graben also helps explain why this anticline may have formed. The anticline is very likely a rollover anticline, caused by the detachment faults dipping to the South. This component would be strong enough to cause the anticlinal fold that parallels the South side of the Swaen Graben.

Future studies for further reasoning on history of area

Further research, such as drilling cores in the study area will give us a better insight into the stratigraphy and its correlation with the reflectors evident in seismic section. This will also give us a better clue to the structural history of the area.

Another area that needs to be addressed, are the multiple salt domes in the region (Figure 1). With better structural data, such as more seismic sections on these domes, we can better associate their affects on the nearby regional and local structures. This could give us better insight to the extinction and origins of nearby fault complexes such as the Swaen Graben.

Conclusion

¨ The formation of the Swaen Graben occurred during the Early- to Mid -Jurassic, along with the formation of the Asterias Fault Complex, the Loppa High Graben and the Eastern Flexure.

¨ I believe the Swaen Graben is thin-skinned, helping create a flake-like structure on the southeastern section of the Loppa High. The western end of the Swaen Graben turns into a transition zone connecting with the Loppa High graben, which in seismic section also appears to be thin-skinned. Being thin-skinned, it helps explain the occurrence of the rollover anticline parallel to the southern edge of the Swaen Graben.

¨ The Loppa High Graben could have a strike-slip component. This could explain the possible multiple directions of extension proposed.

¨ The evolution of the Swaen Graben is interrelated with surrounding structures. It is interrelated with the Asterias Fault Complex in its origin. The central bend in the Graben relates to the bend of the Asterias Fault Complex into the Eastern Flexure.

¨ This paper proposes a thin-skinned model that could be relative to other highs surrounding this region. It suggests that second and third order structures, in combination, can have an affect on the formation of first order structures.

Acknowledgments

This thesis has been a long tedious process for me, as I am sure I has been for all who have put their time and effort towards helping finish it. I would like to thank Saga Petroleum Company for accepting Dr. Harmon Maher Jr.'s grant proposal, from which this project was created. I would like to thank Dr. Schuster for looking at this paper to help add the finishing touches. I would like to thank Marv for all the time and effort he put forth in helping me with all my questions in the lab. I would also definitely like to thank Harmon for helping me through this long tedious process and helping me in all ways possible to finish this paper. It was a long haul, but I finished it, and I am thankful that I had an advisor, like Harmon, with knowledge he was always willing to share. And I would like to say thanks to all my close family and friends who put up with me during this project.

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